Modified lysine decarboxylase enzymes

ABSTRACT

The invention provides CadA polypeptides with mutations that increase activity in alkaline pH compared to the wild-type lysine decarboxylase. The invention also provides methods of generating such mutant polypeptides, microorganisms genetically modified to overexpress the mutant polypeptides, and methods of generating such microorganism.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application is a 35 U.S.C. § 371 National Stage of International Application No. PCT/CN2016/113519, filed 30 Dec. 2016, designating the United States. Each application is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Most enzymes function optimally within a narrow pH range, because they are amphoteric molecules. The pH of the surrounding environment directly affects the charges on the acidic and basic groups of the amino acids that make up the enzyme. These changes in charge affect the net charge of the enzyme, the pKa of the active site, and the charge distribution across the surface of the enzyme. As a result, changes in pH can affect the activity, solubility, and stability of an enzyme.

The class of proteins known as acid decarboxylases is a group of enzymes that catalyze the decarboxylase reaction of basic amino acids (e.g., lysine, arginine, ornithine) in order to generate polyamines as part of the acid stress response in many microorganisms Escherichia coli has several PLP-dependent acid decarboxylases: CadA, LdcC, AdiA, SpeA, SpeC, SpeF, GadA, and GadB. All of these enzymes function within a narrow pH range, and the enzyme activity decreases significantly outside of that pH range (Kanjee et al., Biochemistry 50, 9388-9398, 2011). It has been previously observed that these PLP-dependent decarboxylases dimerize in order to form a complete active site. In some cases, such as CadA, the dimers form decamers that aggregate into higher molecular weight protein complexes required for optimal function. The inhibition of higher molecular weight protein complex formation (e.g., in conditions outside of the optimal pH) leads to a significant decrease in function (Kanjee et al., The EMBO Journal 30, 931-944, 2011).

The pKa values of individual amino acids in a protein are important for determining its biomolecular function, because one of the dominant reactions in a protein-water solution is the exchange of protons by certain amino acids with the environment of the protein. The pKa is a measure of the difference in free energy between the neutral and charged states, and indicates the propensity of an amino acid to donate or accept a proton. Certain amino acids have titratable groups that make them more amenable to accept and donate protons. These amino acids include aspartate, glutamate, cysteine, serine, tyrosine, threonine, histidine, lysine, and arginine. Illustrative pKa values of some amino acids are: aspartate is 4.0, glutamate is 4.4, cysteine is 8.7, tyrosine is 9.6, histidine is 6.3, lysine is 10.4, and arginine is 13.0 (Nielsen J E & Vriend G, Proteins 43, 403-412, 2001). These pKa values can vary by 0.5, depending on the literature source.

Whether a titratable group accepts or donates a proton will depend on its environment, such as the pH or other amino acids in its proximity. For example, when the pH is less than the pKa of the titratable group, then the group will more likely accept a proton. Conversely, when the pH is greater than the pKa of the titratable group, then the group will more likely donate a proton. When a titratable group of an amino acid either accepts or donates a proton, the amino acid can become either positively charged, negatively charged, or neutral depending on the charge it started with before the proton exchange happened. Charged groups can interact with other charged groups when the two groups are brought into proximity of one another. Like charges repel each other and opposite charges attract each other. Neutrally charged groups that are protonated can still interact with other groups through hydrogen bond interactions.

An understanding of the pKa values of the titratable groups of a protein is not only important for understanding how pH affects polypeptide folding and enzyme activity, but also protein-protein interactions (Jensen J E, Curr Pharm Biotechnol 9, 96-102, 2008), especially in the cases of the acid decarboxylases that undergo significant changes in their quaternary structure as a result of a change in the pH of the environment. There have been few studies in evaluating the effect of mutations at various amino acids with titratable groups on the function of the acid decarboxylases.

Based on prior literature (Kanjee, et al. The EMBO Journal 30, 931-944, 2011), CadA transitions from a state that consists of decamers and high-order oligomers to a state that is composed mostly of dimers when the pH of the environment changes. The formation of decamers is a prerequisite for the formation of high-order oligomers. It has been shown that CadA functions optimally at a pH of 5.0-5.5 (Lemonnier M & Lane D, Microbiology 144, 751-760, 1998). At this acidic pH, Kanjee et al. show using EM that CadA exists mainly as high-order oligomers. When the pH is increased above 6.0 or when the inhibitor ppGpp is present, the high-order oligomers do not form and decarboxylase function is significantly reduced. However, there is an absence of literature that describes how the CadA high-order oligomers form and the amino acid residues that play a role in their formation.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF ASPECTS OF THE DISCLOSURE

This invention is based, in part, on the discovery of mutations that provide the ability to stabilize the chemical interactions necessary for quaternary structure formation, and increase stability to allow a mutant acid decarboxylase protein to function across a wider pH range. The ability to function across a wider pH range is important in maintaining a high reaction rate without the need to add additional chemicals to maintain pH. The maintenance of a high reaction rate across a wide pH range would enable lysine to be converted into cadaverine faster and reduce the amount of utilities required. The tolerance of the protein for alkaline pH eliminates the need to add additional chemicals to maintain pH. These chemicals used to maintain pH oftentimes form salts (e.g., SO₄ ²⁻ or Cl⁻) that go either into the wastewater or must be removed from the process using additional purification steps. Therefore, a mutant acid decarboxylase that functions at a wider pH range than wild-type would decrease the cost and the environmental footprint of the overall process by reducing the amount of salts formed during the process.

In one aspect, the invention thus provides a CadA variant polypeptide comprising at least one amino acid substitution at a glutamic acid residue in a region corresponding to amino acids 276 to 509 as determined with reference to SEQ ID NO:2, where the glutamic acid residue occurs at the surface of the protein with the side chain oriented towards the external environment in a segment of the protein that lacks a defined secondary structure; and wherein the CadA variant polypeptide has at least 70% identity to any one of SEQ ID NOS:2 to 5. In some embodiments, the substitution is at a glutamic acid residue at a position selected from the group consisting of positions 291, 344, 355, 463, 482, and 499 as determined with reference to SEQ ID NO:2. In some embodiments, the amino acid substitution is E291A/C/D/H/R/V/G/K/N/S, E355C/F/H/K/L/M/N/P/Q/R/S/T/V/Y, or E482C/F/I/L/S/W/Y/A/H/K/M. In some embodiments, the amino acid substitution is E291A/C/D/H/R/V, E355C/F/H/K/L/M/N/P/Q/R/S/T/V/Y, or E482C/F/I/L/S/W/Y. In some embodiments a CadA variant polypeptide comprises substitutions of glutamic acid residues at at least two positions selected from the group consisting of positions 291, 344, 355, 463, 482, and 499. In some embodiments, a CadA variant polypeptide comprises substitutions of glutamic acid residues at at least three positions selected from the group consisting of positions 291, 344, 355, 463, 482, and 499. In some embodiments, a CadA variant polypeptide comprises substitutions of glutamic acid residues at four or five positions selected from the group consisting of positions 291, 344, 355, 463, 482, and 499; or at all six of the positions. In some embodiments, a CadA variant polypeptide as described above in this paragraph has at least 70% identity to SEQ ID NO:2. In some embodiments, the CadA variant polypeptide has at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, or at least 95% identity to SEQ ID NO:2. In some embodiments, a CadA variant polypeptide has at least 70% identity to SEQ ID NO:3, SEQ ID NO:4, or SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the CadA variant polypeptide has at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, or at least 95% identity to SEQ ID NO:3, SEQ ID NO:4, or SEQ ID NO:5.

In a further aspect, the invention provides a genetically modified host cell comprising a CadA variant polypeptide as described herein, e.g., in the preceding paragraph. In typical embodiments, the genetically modified host cell is genetically modified to over express one or more lysine biosynthesis polypeptides. In some embodiments, the host cell is a bacterium. In further embodiments, the host cell is from the genus Escherichia, Hafnia, or Corynebacteria. In some embodiments, the genetically modified host cell is Escherichia coli. In some embodiments, the genetically modified host cell is Hafnia alvei. In some embodiments, the genetically modified host cell is Corynebacterium glutamicum.

In an additional aspect, the invention provides a polynucleotide comprising a nucleic acid sequence encoding a CadA variant polypeptide as described herein, e.g., in the preceding paragraphs in this section. In further aspects, the invention additionally provides an expression vector comprising a polynucleotide encoding the CadA variant, and/or a genetically modified host cell comprising the expression vector. In some embodiments, the host cell is a bacterium, e.g., from the genus Escherichia, Hafnia, or Corynebacteria. In some embodiments, the genetically modified host cell is Escherichia coli. In some embodiments, the genetically modified host cell is Hafnia alvei. In some embodiments, the genetically modified host cell is Corynebacterium glutamicum.

In a further aspect, the invention provides a genetically modified host cell comprising a polynucleotide that comprises a nucleic acid sequence encoding a CadA variant polypeptide as described herein, e.g., in the preceding paragraphs in this section, wherein the nucleic acid sequence encoding the CadA variant polypeptide is integrated into the host cell chromosome. In some embodiments, the host cell is a bacterium, e.g., from the genus Escherichia, Hafnia, or Corynebacteria. In some embodiments, the genetically modified host cell is Escherichia coli. In some embodiments, the genetically modified host cell is Hafnia alvei. In some embodiments, the genetically modified host cell is Corynebacterium glutamicum.

In another aspect, the invention provides a method of producing cadaverine, the method comprising culturing a genetically modified host cell as described herein, e.g., in the preceding paragraphs in this section, under conditions in which CadA variant polypeptide is expressed.

DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1 shows an alignment of the E. coli CadA polypeptide sequence SEQ ID NO:2 with CadA homologs from Salmonella enterica (WP_001540636.1, SEQ ID NO:5), Klebsiella multispecies (WP_012968785, SEQ ID NO:3), and Enterobacteriaeceae multispecies (WP_002892486.1, SEQ ID NO:4).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF ASPECTS OF THE DISCLOSURE

Before the present invention is described, it is to be understood that this invention is not limited to particular embodiments described, as such may, of course, vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to be limiting.

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. Although any methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the present invention, the preferred methods and materials are now described. All publications and accession numbers mentioned herein are incorporated herein by reference to disclose and describe the methods and/or materials in connection with which the publications are cited.

Terminology

As used in the context of the present disclosure, a “CadA polypeptide” refers to an Escherichia coli CadA polypeptide having the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:2, or a biologically active variant thereof that has activity, i.e., catalyzes the decarboxylation of L-lysine to produce cadaverine. Biologically active variants include alleles, mutants, fragments, and interspecies homologs of the E. coli CadA polypeptide. CadA has been well characterized structurally and functionally. The protein data bank ID for the structure of CadA is 3N75. Illustrative CadA polypeptides from other species include CadA from Klebsiella (e.g., SEQ ID NO:3), Enterobacteriaceae (e.g., SEQ ID NO:5), and Salmonella enterica (e.g., SEQ ID NO:6). Additional CadA polypeptides from other species include Serratia sp., WP 033635725.1; and Raoultella ornithinolytica, YP 007874766.1. In some embodiments, a “CadA polypeptide” has at least 60% amino acid sequence identity, typically at least 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90% identity; often at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% or greater amino acid sequence identity, over a region of at least about 200, 300, 400, 500, or more, amino acids; or over the length of the CadA polypeptide of SEQ ID NO:2. In some embodiments, a “CadA polypeptide” comprises a region that has at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, or at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% or greater amino acid sequence identity over a region comprising amino acids residues that correspond to amino acids 261-509 of SEQ ID NO:2 where a native glutamate present in the region is substituted with another non-naturally occurring amino acid as described herein. In some embodiments, a “CadA polypeptide” has at least 60% amino acid sequence identity, often at least 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% or greater, amino acid sequence identity, preferably over a region of at least about 200, 300, 400, 500, or more, amino acids, or over the length of the CadA polypeptide of SEQ ID NO:3, SEQ ID NO:4, or SEQ ID NO:5.

A “CadA polynucleotide” as used herein refers to a polynucleotide that encodes a CadA polypeptide. A nucleic acid or polynucleotide that encodes a CadA refers to a gene, pre-mRNA, mRNA, and the like, including nucleic acids encoding variants, alleles, fragments, mutants, and interspecies homologs of the particular amino acid sequences described herein.

As used herein, the term “alkaline pH” refers to a solution or surrounding environment having a pH of greater than 7.5. In one embodiment, alkaline pH refers to a solution or surrounding environment have a pH of at least 8.0, at least 8.5, or higher.

The term “enhanced” or “improved” in the context of the production of an amino acid derivative, e.g., cadaverine, as used herein refers to an increase in the production of the amino acid derivative produced by a host cell that expresses a CadA variant polypeptide of the invention in comparison to a control counterpart cell, such as a cell of the wildtype strain or a cell of the same strain that expresses the wildtype CadA protein. In one embodiment, activity of the CadA variant is improved by at least 10%, 15% 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 100%, or greater, compared to CadA activity of a counterpart cell expressing a wildtype CadA, where activity is assessed by measuring the production of an amino acid derivative, typically cadaverine, produced by the host cell and control cell under identical conditions. For example, activity of a CadA variant polypeptide of the invention can be assessed by evaluating an aliquot of a culture of host cells transformed with a polynucleotide encoding the variant CadA polypeptide compared to a corresponding aliquot from a culture of counterpart host cells of the same strain that expresses wildtype CadA. By way of further illustration, the activity of a CadA variant polypeptide of the invention compared to the counterpart widltype CadA can be determined by evaluating the production of cadaverine by cells transformed with either a vector comprising a nucleic acid sequence encoding the variant CadA polypeptide (variant host cells) or a vector comprising a nucleic acid encoding the wildtype CadA polypeptide (control host cells). Variant and control host cells that are grown under conditions to express CadA and an aliquot is incubated with lysine-HCl and PLP at a final concentration of 120 g/L and 0.1 mM, respectively at pH 8.0 for a period of time, e.g., 2 hours. Cadaverine production is measured following incubation. An exemplary assay is provided in the Examples section.

The terms “numbered with reference to”, or “corresponding to,” or “determined with reference to” when used in the context of the numbering of a given amino acid or polynucleotide sequence, refers to the numbering of the residues of a specified reference sequence when the given amino acid or polynucleotide sequence is compared to the reference sequence. For example, a position of a variant CadA polypeptide sequence “corresponds to” a position in SEQ ID NO:2 when the variant polypeptide is aligned with SEQ ID NO:2 in a maximal alignment.

The terms “wild type”, “native”, and “naturally occurring” with respect to a CadA polypeptide are used herein to refer to a CadA protein that has a sequence that occurs in nature.

In the context of this invention, the term “mutant” with respect to a mutant polypeptide or mutant polynucleotide is used interchangeably with “variant”. A “non-naturally” occurring CadA variant refers to a variant or mutant CadA polypeptide that is not present in a cell in nature and that is produced by genetic modification, e.g., using genetic engineering technology or mutagenesis techniques, of a native CadA polynucleotide or polypeptide. A “variant” CadA polypeptide in the context of this disclosure includes any non-naturally occurring CadA polypeptide that comprises at least one amino acid substitution, where the at least one amino acid substitution is a substitution of a glutamic acid residue at positions 291, 344, 355, 463, 482, or 499, as determined with reference to SEQ ID NO:2. A variant CadA polypeptide of the invention may also have additional mutations relative to SEQ ID NO:2, including further substitutions, insertions, or deletions.

The terms “polynucleotide” and “nucleic acid” are used interchangeably and refer to a single or double-stranded polymer of deoxyribonucleotide or ribonucleotide bases read from the 5′ to the 3′ end. A nucleic acid as used in the present invention will generally contain phosphodiester bonds, although in some cases, nucleic acid analogs may be used that may have alternate backbones, comprising, e.g., phosphoramidate, phosphorothioate, phosphorodithioate, or O-methylphosphoroamidite linkages (see Eckstein, Oligonucleotides and Analogues: A Practical Approach, Oxford University Press); positive backbones; non-ionic backbones, and non-ribose backbones. Nucleic acids or polynucleotides may also include modified nucleotides that permit correct read-through by a polymerase. “Polynucleotide sequence” or “nucleic acid sequence” includes both the sense and antisense strands of a nucleic acid as either individual single strands or in a duplex. As will be appreciated by those in the art, the depiction of a single strand also defines the sequence of the complementary strand; thus the sequences described herein also provide the complement of the sequence. Unless otherwise indicated, a particular nucleic acid sequence also implicitly encompasses variants thereof (e.g., degenerate codon substitutions) and complementary sequences, as well as the sequence explicitly indicated. The nucleic acid may be DNA, both genomic and cDNA, RNA or a hybrid, where the nucleic acid may contain combinations of deoxyribo- and ribo-nucleotides, and combinations of bases, including uracil, adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine, inosine, xanthine hypoxanthine, isocytosine, isoguanine, etc.

The term “substantially identical,” used in the context of this disclosure for two nucleic acids or polypeptides, refers to a sequence that has at least 50% sequence identity with a reference sequence. Percent identity can be any integer from 50% to 100%. Some embodiments include at least: 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99%, compared to a reference sequence using the programs described herein; preferably BLAST using standard parameters, as described below.

Two nucleic acid sequences or polypeptide sequences are said to be “identical” if the sequence of nucleotides or amino acid residues, respectively, in the two sequences is the same when aligned for maximum correspondence as described below. The terms “identical” or percent “identity,” in the context of two or more nucleic acids or polypeptide sequences, refer to two or more sequences or subsequences that are the same or have a specified percentage of amino acid residues or nucleotides that are the same, when compared and aligned for maximum correspondence over a comparison window, as measured using one of the following sequence comparison algorithms or by manual alignment and visual inspection.

For sequence comparison, typically one sequence acts as a reference sequence, to which test sequences are compared. When using a sequence comparison algorithm, test and reference sequences are entered into a computer, subsequence coordinates are designated, if necessary, and sequence algorithm program parameters are designated. Default program parameters can be used, or alternative parameters can be designated. The sequence comparison algorithm then calculates the percent sequence identities for the test sequences relative to the reference sequence, based on the program parameters.

An algorithm that may be used to determine whether a variant CadA polypeptide has sequence identity to SEQ ID NO:2, or another polypeptide reference sequence such as SEQ ID NO:3, SEQ ID NO:4, or SEQ ID NO:5, is the BLAST algorithm, which is described in Altschul et al., 1990, J. Mol. Biol. 215:403-410). Software for performing BLAST analyses is publicly available through the National Center for Biotechnology Information (on the worldwide web at ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/). Illustrative software for performing protein sequence alignments include ClustalW2 and BLASTP. For amino acid sequences, the BLASTP program uses as defaults a word size (W) of 3, an expect threshold (E) of 10, and the BLOSUM62 scoring matrix (see Henikoff & Henikoff, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:10915 (1989)). In the present disclosure, polypeptide sequence identity is typically determined using BLASTP Align Sequence with the default parameters.

A “comparison window,” as used herein, includes reference to a segment of any one of the number of contiguous positions selected from the group consisting of from 20 to 600, usually about 50 to about 200, more usually about 100 to about 150 in which a sequence may be compared to a reference sequence of the same number of contiguous positions after the two sequences are optimally aligned. Methods of alignment of sequences for comparison are well-known in the art. Optimal alignment of sequences for comparison can be conducted, e.g., by the local homology algorithm of Smith & Waterman, Adv. Appl. Math. 2:482 (1981), by the homology alignment algorithm of Needleman & Wunsch, J. Mol. Biol. 48:443 (1970), by the search for similarity method of Pearson & Lipman, Proc. Nat'l. Acad. Sci. USA 85:2444 (1988), by computerized implementations of these algorithms (GAP, BESTFIT, FASTA, and TFASTA in the Wisconsin Genetics Software Package, Genetics Computer Group, 575 Science Dr., Madison, Wis.), or by manual alignment and visual inspection. Optimal alignments are typically conducted using BLASTP with default parameters.

Nucleic acid or protein sequences that are substantially identical to a reference sequence include “conservatively modified variants.” With respect to particular nucleic acid sequences, conservatively modified variants refers to those nucleic acids which encode identical or essentially identical amino acid sequences, or where the nucleic acid does not encode an amino acid sequence, to essentially identical sequences. Because of the degeneracy of the genetic code, a large number of functionally identical nucleic acids encode any given protein. For instance, the codons GCA, GCC, GCG and GCU all encode the amino acid alanine. Thus, at every position where an alanine is specified by a codon, the codon can be altered to any of the corresponding codons described without altering the encoded polypeptide. Such nucleic acid variations are “silent variations,” which are one species of conservatively modified variations. Every nucleic acid sequence herein which encodes a polypeptide also describes every possible silent variation of the nucleic acid. One of skill will recognize that each codon in a nucleic acid (except AUG, which is ordinarily the only codon for methionine) can be modified to yield a functionally identical molecule. Accordingly, each silent variation of a nucleic acid which encodes a polypeptide is implicit in each described sequence.

The term “polypeptide” as used herein includes reference to polypeptides containing naturally occurring amino acids and amino acid backbones as well as non-naturally occurring amino acids and amino acid analogs.

As to amino acid sequences, one of skill will recognize that individual substitutions, in a nucleic acid, peptide, polypeptide, or protein sequence which alters a single amino acid or a small percentage of amino acids in the encoded sequence is a “conservatively modified variant” where the alteration results in the substitution of an amino acid with a chemically similar amino acid. Conservative substitution tables providing functionally similar amino acids are well known in the art. Examples of amino acid groups defined in this manner can include: a “charged/polar group” including Glu (Glutamic acid or E), Asp (Aspartic acid or D), Asn (Asparagine or N), Gln (Glutamine or Q), Lys (Lysine or K), Arg (Arginine or R) and His (Histidine or H); an “aromatic or cyclic group” including Pro (Proline or P), Phe (Phenylalanine or F), Tyr (Tyrosine or Y) and Trp (Tryptophan or W); and an “aliphatic group” including Gly (Glycine or G), Ala (Alanine or A), Val (Valine or V), Leu (Leucine or L), Ile (Isoleucine or I), Met (Methionine or M), Ser (Serine or S), Thr (Threonine or T) and Cys (Cysteine or C). Within each group, subgroups can also be identified. For example, the group of charged/polar amino acids can be sub-divided into sub-groups including: the “positively-charged sub-group” comprising Lys, Arg and His; the “negatively-charged sub-group” comprising Glu and Asp; and the “polar sub-group” comprising Asn and Gln. In another example, the aromatic or cyclic group can be sub-divided into sub-groups including: the “nitrogen ring sub-group” comprising Pro, His and Trp; and the “phenyl sub-group” comprising Phe and Tyr. In another further example, the aliphatic group can be sub-divided into sub-groups including: the “large aliphatic non-polar sub-group” comprising Val, Leu and Ile; the “aliphatic slightly-polar sub-group” comprising Met, Ser, Thr and Cys; and the “small-residue sub-group” comprising Gly and Ala. Examples of conservative mutations include amino acid substitutions of amino acids within the sub-groups above, such as, but not limited to: Lys for Arg or vice versa, such that a positive charge can be maintained; Glu for Asp or vice versa, such that a negative charge can be maintained; Ser for Thr or vice versa, such that a free —OH can be maintained; and Gln for Asn or vice versa, such that a free —NH2 can be maintained. The following six groups each contain amino acids that further provide illustrative conservative substitutions for one another. 1) Ala, Ser, Thr; 2) Asp, Glu; 3) Asn, Gln; 4) Arg, Lys; 5) Ile, Leu, Met, Val; and 6) Phe, Try, and Trp (see, e.g., Creighton, Proteins (1984)). In some embodiments, conservative substitutions are employed in generating Cada variants having substitutions at sites other than a glutamate residue.

The term “promoter,” as used herein, refers to a polynucleotide sequence capable of driving transcription of a nucleic acid sequence in a cell. Thus, promoters used in the polynucleotide constructs of the invention include cis- and trans-acting transcriptional control elements and regulatory sequences that are involved in regulating or modulating the timing and/or rate of transcription of a gene. For example, a promoter can be a cis-acting transcriptional control element, including an enhancer, a repressor binding sequence and the like. These cis-acting sequences typically interact with proteins or other biomolecules to carry out (turn on/off, regulate, modulate, etc.) gene transcription. Most often the core promoter sequences lie within 1-2 kb of the translation start site, more often within 1 kbp and often within 500 bp or 200 bp or fewer, of the translation start site. By convention, promoter sequences are usually provided as the sequence on the coding strand of the gene it controls. In the context of this application, a promoter is typically referred to by the name of the gene for which it naturally regulates expression. A promoter used in an expression construct of the invention is referred to by the name of the gene. Reference to a promoter by name includes a wild type, native promoter as well as variants of the promoter that retain the ability to induce expression. Reference to a promoter by name is not restricted to a particular species, but also encompasses a promoter from a corresponding gene in other species.

A “constitutive promoter” in the context of this invention refers to a promoter that is capable of initiating transcription under most conditions in a cell, e.g., in the absence of an inducing molecule. An “inducible promoter” initiates transcription in the presence of an inducer molecule.

A polynucleotide is “heterologous” to an organism or a second polynucleotide sequence if it originates from a foreign species, or, if from the same species, is modified from its original form. For example, when a polynucleotide encoding a polypeptide sequence is said to be operably linked to a heterologous promoter, it means that the polynucleotide coding sequence encoding the polypeptide is derived from one species whereas the promoter sequence is derived from another, different species; or, if both are derived from the same species, the coding sequence is not naturally associated with the promoter (e.g., is a genetically engineered coding sequence, e.g., from a different gene in the same species, or an allele from a different species). Similarly, a polypeptide is “heterologous” to a host cell if the native wildtype host cell does not produce the polypeptide.

The term “exogenous” refers generally to a polynucleotide sequence or polypeptide that does not naturally occur in a wild-type cell or organism, but is typically introduced into the cell by molecular biological techniques, i.e., engineering to produce a recombinant microorganism. Examples of “exogenous”polynucleotides include vectors, plasmids, and/or man-made nucleic acid constructs encoding a desired protein.

The term “endogenous” refers to naturally-occurring polynucleotide sequences or polypeptides that may be found in a given wild-type cell or organism. In this regard, it is also noted that even though an organism may comprise an endogenous copy of a given polynucleotide sequence or gene, the introduction of a plasmid or vector encoding that sequence, such as to over-express or otherwise regulate the expression of the encoded protein, represents an “exogenous” copy of that gene or polynucleotide sequence. Any of the pathways, genes, or enzymes described herein may utilize or rely on an “endogenous” sequence, which may be provided as one or more “exogenous” polynucleotide sequences, or both.

“Recombinant nucleic acid” or “recombinant polynucleotide” as used herein refers to a polymer of nucleic acids wherein at least one of the following is true: (a) the sequence of nucleic acids is foreign to (i.e., not naturally found in) a given host cell; (b) the sequence may be naturally found in a given host cell, but in an unnatural (e.g., greater than expected) amount; or (c) the sequence of nucleic acids comprises two or more subsequences that are not found in the same relationship to each other in nature. For example, regarding instance (c), a recombinant nucleic acid sequence can have two or more sequences from unrelated genes arranged to make a new functional nucleic acid.

The term “operably linked” refers to a functional relationship between two or more polynucleotide (e.g., DNA) segments. Typically, it refers to the functional relationship of a transcriptional regulatory sequence to a transcribed sequence. For example, a promoter or enhancer sequence is operably linked to a DNA or RNA sequence if it stimulates or modulates the transcription of the DNA or RNA sequence in an appropriate host cell or other expression system. Generally, promoter transcriptional regulatory sequences that are operably linked to a transcribed sequence are physically contiguous to the transcribed sequence, i.e., they are cis-acting. However, some transcriptional regulatory sequences, such as enhancers, need not be physically contiguous or located in close proximity to the coding sequences whose transcription they enhance.

The term “expression cassette” or “DNA construct” or “expression construct” refers to a nucleic acid construct that, when introduced into a host cell, results in transcription and/or translation of an RNA or polypeptide, respectively. In the case of expression of transgenes, one of skill will recognize that the inserted polynucleotide sequence need not be identical, but may be only substantially identical to a sequence of the gene from which it was derived. As explained herein, these substantially identical variants are specifically covered by reference to a specific nucleic acid sequence. One example of an expression cassette is a polynucleotide construct that comprises a polynucleotide sequence encoding a polypeptide of the invention protein operably linked to a promoter, e.g., its native promoter, where the expression cassette is introduced into a heterologous microorganism. In some embodiments, an expression cassette comprises a polynucleotide sequence encoding a polypeptide of the invention where the polynucleotide is targeted to a position in the genome of a microorganism such that expression of the polynucleotide sequence is driven by a promoter that is present in the microorganism.

The term “host cell” as used in the context of this invention refers to a microorganism and includes an individual cell or cell culture that can be or has been a recipient of any recombinant vector(s) or isolated polynucleotide(s) of the invention. Host cells include progeny of a single host cell, and the progeny may not necessarily be completely identical (in morphology or in total DNA complement) to the original parent cell due to natural, accidental, or deliberate mutation and/or change. A host cell includes cells into which a recombinant vector or a polynucleotide of the invention has been introduced, including by transformation, transfection, and the like.

The term “isolated” refers to a material that is substantially or essentially free from components that normally accompany it in its native state. For example, an “isolated polynucleotide,” as used herein, may refer to a polynucleotide that has been isolated from the sequences that flank it in its naturally-occurring or genomic state, e.g., a DNA fragment that has been removed from the sequences that are normally adjacent to the fragment, such as by cloning into a vector. A polynucleotide is considered to be isolated if, for example, it is cloned into a vector that is not a part of the natural environment, or if it is artificially introduced in the genome of a cell in a manner that differs from its naturally-occurring state. Alternatively, an “isolated peptide” or an “isolated polypeptide” and the like, as used herein, may refer to a polypeptide molecule that is free of other components of the cell, i.e., it is not associated with in vivo cellular substances.

The invention employs various routine recombinant nucleic acid techniques. Generally, the nomenclature and the laboratory procedures in recombinant DNA technology described below are commonly employed in the art. Many manuals that provide direction for performing recombinant DNA manipulations are available, e.g., Sambrook & Russell, Molecular Cloning, A Laboratory Manual (3rd Ed, 2001); and Current Protocols in Molecular Biology (Ausubel, et al., John Wiley and Sons, New York, 2009-2016).

Summary of Certain Aspects of the Disclosure

In one aspect, the invention provides a variant CadA polypeptide that comprises a mutation at a glutamic acid (glutamate) that resides at a position in one of sections of the protein in the core domain that are without a defined secondary structure (α, alpha helix; β, beta sheet; η, strand) (see Kanjee et al.,) within those domains. These sections are the amino acids 276-299 between β10 and β11 that includes η4 and α11, the amino acids 314-326 between β11 and α12 that includes β12, the amino acids 344-357 between η6 and β14, the amino acids 454-483 between β16 and β18 that includes β17, and the amino acids 494-509 between β19 and α17, wherein the positions of the amino acids are defined with reference to SEQ ID NO:2.

The ability of a variant CadA of the present invention to tolerate alkaline pH also allows the use of alternative nitrogen sources that have higher pH values, such as urea and ammonia (1M solution has a pH 11.6) in fermentation reactions to generate the desired product, e.g., polyamines. These alternative nitrogen sources generate less salt waste byproduct.

CadA Polypeptide Variants

CadA is a member of the subclass of Fold Type I pyridoxal 5′-phosphate (PLP)-dependent decarboxylases. This class of proteins typically contains a N-terminal wing domain, a core domain, and a C-terminal domain. The core domain has a linker region, a PLP-binding subdomain, and subdomain 4 For CadA, the N-terminal wing domain (corresponding to residues 1 to 129 as determined with reference to SEQ ID NO:2) has a flavodoxin-like fold composed of five-stranded parallel beta-sheets sandwiched between two sets of amphipathic alpha-helices. The core domain (residues 130 to 563 as determined with reference to 563 of SEQ ID NO:2) includes: a linker region, amino acid residues 130 to 183 of SEQ ID NO:2, that form a short helical bundle; the PLP-binding subdomain, amino acids 184 to 417 of SEQ ID NO:2 that form a seven-stranded beta-sheet core surrounded by three sets of alpha-helices; and subdomain 4, amino acids 418 to 563 that form a four stranded antiparallel beta-sheet core with three alpha-helices facing outward. The C-terminal domain corresponds to amino acid residues 564 to 715 as determined with referenced to SEQ ID NO:2 that form two sets of beta sheets with an alpha-helical outer surface (Kanjee et al., The EMBO Journal 30, 931-944 2011).

CadA protein forms a two-fold symmetric dimer that completes the active site of each monomer. Five dimers associate to form a decamer that consist of a double-ringed structure with five-fold symmetry. The decamer associates with other decamers to form higher-order oligomers. It has been shown that in acidic conditions (pH 5), CadA predominantly exists in the oligomeric state, and less oligomers and decamers are found as the environment becomes more basic. It was estimated that 25% of the enzymes exist as dimers and 75% exist as decamers at pH 6.5, while 95% of the enzymes exist as dimers at pH 8.0 (Kanjee et al., The EMBO Journal 30, 931-944 2011). This decrease in oligomer formation coincides with the decrease in decarboxylase activity observed as the pH of the environment of the enzyme increases above 5.0.

Illustrative Cad A polypeptides from E. coli, Salmonella enterica, Klebsiella, and Enterobacteriaeceae are provided in SEQ ID NOS:2-5, which share greater than 90% sequence identity with one another.

CadA polypeptides of the present invention comprise at least one substitution of another amino acid for a glutamate at a position in one of the segments of the protein in the core domain that are without a defined secondary structure (α, alpha helix; β, beta sheet; η, strand) (see Kanjee et al.,); and where the glutamate is at the surface of the protein where the side chain is oriented toward the external environment. In the present disclosure, the amino acid that is substituted for the glutamate does not occur at that position in a native CadA sequence. A variant CadA polypeptide in accordance with the invention thus can comprise at least one amino acid substitution at position E291, E344, E355, E463, E482, and E499 as determined with reference to SEQ ID NO:2. In some embodiments a variant CadA polypeptide comprises more than one amino acid substitution, e.g., 2, 3, or more substitutions, at positions E291, E344, E355, E463, E482, and E499 as determined with reference to SEQ ID NO:2. In some embodiments, the amino acid that is substituted for a glutamate is selected from the group of amino acids consisting of alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine, glutamine, glutamic acid, glycine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, proline, serine, threonine, tryptophan, tyrosine, or valine, where the mutant does not have the same amino acid as the wild-type sequence (SEQ ID NO: 2, 3, 4, or 5) at the same position. In some embodiments, the amino acid that is substituted for a glutamate has the ability to donate a hydrogen for hydrogen bond formation. For example, C, Y, K, and N have pKa valuates greater than 7, so their protonation state does not change when the pH increases from 5 to 8. Therefore, any hydrogen bond formed at these positions is more stable compared to when glutamate, which has an acidic pKa, is present at those positions. The sulfur of M can act as either a nucleophile or an electrophile and does not need a proton to interact with other amino acid groups. M may thus further stabilize a protein-protein interaction at that site. In some embodiments, the amino acid that is substituted for a glutamate is selected from the group consisting of C, H, K, S, A, F, L, M, N, R, V, Y, D, G, I, P, Q, T, and W. In some embodiments, the amino acid that is substituted for a glutamate is selected from the group consisting of C, H, K, S, A, F, L, M, N, R, V, and Y. In some embodiments, the amino acid that is substituted for a glutamate is selected from the group consisting of C, Y, K, S, H, R, M, and N. In some embodiments, the amino acid that is substituted for a glutamate is selected from the group consisting of C, H, K, and S.

In some embodiments, the variant CadA polypeptide is a variant of CadA from E. coli in which at least, one, two, three, four, five, or all six of the glutamates at positions E291, E344, E355, E463, E482, and E499 is substituted with another amino acid.

In some embodiments, a variant CadA polypeptide of the invention has at least 60% amino acid sequence identity, often at least 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, or 85% identity; and typically at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% or greater amino acid sequence identity, over a region of at 500 or more amino acids in length, or over the length of, the CadA polypeptide of SEQ ID NO:2; and has a substitution at a glutamic acid residue at at least one of positions E291, E344, E355, E463, E482, or E499 as determined with reference to SEQ ID NO:2. In some embodiments, the substitution is E291A/C/D/H/R/V/G/K/N/S, E355C/F/H/K/L/M/N/P/Q/R/S/T/V/Y, or E482C/F/I/L/S/W/Y/A/H/K/M. In other embodiments, the substitution is E291A/C/D/H/R/V, E355C/F/H/K/L/M/N/P/Q/R/S/T/V/Y, or E482C/F/I/L/S/W/Y.

In some embodiments, a variant CadA polypeptide of the invention has at least 60% amino acid sequence identity, often at least 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, or 85% identity; and typically at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% or greater amino acid sequence identity, over a region of at 500 or more amino acids in length, or over the length of, the CadA polypeptide of SEQ ID NO:3; and has a substitution at a glutamic acid residue at at least one of positions E291, E344, E355, E463, or E482 as determined with reference to SEQ ID NO:3. In some embodiments, the substitution is E291A/C/D/H/R/V/G/K/N/S, E355C/F/H/K/L/M/N/P/Q/R/S/T/V/Y, or E482C/F/I/L/S/W/Y/A/H/K/M. In other embodiments, the substitution is E291A/C/D/H/R/V, E355C/F/H/K/L/M/N/P/Q/R/S/T/V/Y, or E482C/F/I/L/S/W/Y.

In some embodiments, a variant CadA polypeptide of the invention has at least 60% amino acid sequence identity, often at least 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, or 85% identity; and typically at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% or greater amino acid sequence identity, over a region of at 500 or more amino acids in length, or over the length of, the CadA polypeptide of SEQ ID NO:4; and has a substitution at a glutamic acid residue at at least one of positions E291, E344, E355, E463, or E482 as determined with reference to SEQ ID NO:4. In some embodiments, the substitution is E291A/C/D/H/R/V/G/K/N/S, E355C/F/H/K/L/M/N/P/Q/R/S/T/V/Y, or E482C/F/I/L/S/W/Y/A/H/K/M. In other embodiments, the substitution is E291A/C/D/H/R/V, E355C/F/H/K/L/M/N/P/Q/R/S/T/B/Y, or E482C/F/I/L/S/W/Y.

In some embodiments, a variant CadA polypeptide of the invention has at least 60% amino acid sequence identity, often at least 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, or 85% identity; and typically at least 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% or greater amino acid sequence identity, over a region of at 500 or more amino acids in length, or over the length of, the CadA polypeptide of SEQ ID NO:5; and has a substitution at a glutamic acid residue at at least one of positions E291, E355, E463, or E482 as determined with reference to SEQ ID NO:5. In some embodiments, the substitution is E291A/C/D/H/R/V/G/K/N/S, E355C/F/H/K/L/M/N/P/Q/R/S/T/V/Y, or E482C/F/I/L/S/W/Y/A/H/K/M. In other embodiments, the substitution is E291A/C/D/H/R/V, E355C/F/H/K/L/M/N/P/Q/R/S/T/V/Y, or E482C/F/I/L/S/W/Y.

Nucleic Acids Encoding CadA Variant Polypeptides

Isolation or generation of CadA polynucleotide sequences can be accomplished by a number of techniques. In some embodiments, oligonucleotide probes and based on the sequences disclosed here can be used to identify the desired polynucleotide in a cDNA or genomic DNA library from a desired bacteria species. Desired substitutions may be introduced into the CadA-encoding polynucleotide sequence using appropriate primers, e.g., as illustrated in the Examples section, to incorporate the desired changes into the polynucleotide sequence. For instance, PCR may be used to amplify the sequences of the genes directly from mRNA, from cDNA, from genomic libraries or cDNA libraries and to introduce desired substitutions.

Appropriate primers and probes for identifying a CadA polynucleotide in bacteria can be generated from comparisons of the sequences provided herein or generated based on a CadA polynucleotide sequence from another bacteria. For a general overview of PCR see PCR Protocols: A Guide to Methods and Applications. (Innis, M, Gelfand, D., Sninsky, J. and White, T., eds.), Academic Press, San Diego (1990). Illustrative primer sequences are shown in the Table of Primers in the Examples section.

Nucleic acid sequences encoding an acid decarboxylase polypeptide for use in the disclosure includes genes and gene products identified and characterized by techniques such as hybridization and/or sequence analysis using illustrative nucleic acid sequences, e.g., a cadA polynucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO:1. In some embodiments, a host cell is genetically modified by introducing a nucleic acid sequence having at least 60% identity, or at least 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, or 90% identity, or 95% identity, or greater, to an acid decarboxylase polynucleotide, e.g., a cadA polynucleotide of SEQ ID NO:1, wherein the nucleic acid comprises a codon that encodes the desired amino acid to be substituted.

Nucleic acid sequences encoding a CadA variant protein in accordance with the invention that confers increased production of an amino acid derivative, e.g., cadaverine, to a host cell, may additionally be codon-optimized for expression in a desired host cell. Methods and databases that can be employed are known in the art. For example, preferred codons may be determined in relation to codon usage in a single gene, a set of genes of common function or origin, highly expressed genes, the codon frequency in the aggregate protein coding regions of the whole organism, codon frequency in the aggregate protein coding regions of related organisms, or combinations thereof. See e.g., Henaut and Danchin in “Escherichia coli and Salmonella,” Neidhardt, et al. Eds., ASM Pres, Washington D.C. (1996), pp. 2047-2066; Nucleic Acids Res. 20:2111-2118; Nakamura et al., 2000, Nucl. Acids Res. 28:292).

Preparation of Recombinant Vectors

Recombinant vectors for expression of a variant CadA protein can be prepared using methods well known in the art. For example, a DNA sequence encoding a CadA variant polypeptide, can be combined with transcriptional and other regulatory sequences which will direct the transcription of the sequence from the gene in the intended cells, e.g., bacterial cells such as H. alvei, E. coli, or C. glutamicum. In some embodiments, an expression vector that comprises an expression cassette that comprises the gene encoding the CadA variant polypeptide further comprises a promoter operably linked to the nucleic acid sequence encoding the CadA variant polypeptide. In other embodiments, a promoter and/or other regulatory elements that direct transcription of the cadA polynucleotide encoding a variant Cada polypeptide are endogenous to the host cell and an expression cassette comprising the cadA gene is introduced, e.g., by homologous recombination, such that the exogenous gene is operably linked to an endogenous promoter and is expression driven by the endogenous promoter.

As noted above, expression of the polynucleotide encoding a CadA variant polypeptide can be controlled by a number of regulatory sequences including promoters, which may be either constitutive or inducible; and, optionally, repressor sequences, if desired. Examples of suitable promoters, especially in a bacterial host cell, are the promoters obtained from the E. coli lac operon and other promoters derived from genes involved in the metabolism of other sugars, e.g., galactose and maltose. Additional examples include promoters such as the trp promoter, bla promoter bacteriophage lambda PL, and T5. In addition, synthetic promoters, such as the tac promoter (U.S. Pat. No. 4,551,433), can be used. Further examples of promoters include Streptomyces coelicolor agarase gene (dagA), Bacillus subtilis levansucrase gene (sacB), Bacillus licheniformis alpha-amylase gene (amyL), Bacillus stearothermophilus maltogenic amylase gene (amyM), Bacillus amyloliquefaciens alpha-amylase gene (amyQ), Bacillus licheniformis penicillinase gene (penP), Bacillus subtilis xylA and xylB genes. Suitable promoters are also described in Ausubel and Sambrook & Russell, both supra. Additional promoters include promoters described by Jensen & Hammer, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64:82, 1998; Shimada, et al., J. Bacteriol. 186:7112, 2004; and Miksch et al., Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 69:312, 2005.

In some embodiments, a promoter that influences expression of a cadA gene encoding a CadA variant polypeptide of the invention may be modified to increase expression. For example, an endogenous CadA promoter may be replaced by a promoter that provides for increased expression compared to the native promoter.

An expression vector may also comprise additional sequences that influence expression of a polynucleotide encoding the CadA variant polypeptide. Such sequences include enhancer sequences, a ribosome binding site, or other sequences such as transcription termination sequences, and the like.

A vector expressing a polynucleotide encoding a CadA variant polypeptide of the invention may be an autonomously replicating vector, i.e., a vector which exists as an extrachromosomal entity, the replication of which is independent of chromosomal replication, e.g., a plasmid, an extrachromosomal element, a minichromosome, or an artificial chromosome. The vector may contain any means for assuring self-replication. Alternatively, the vector may be one which, when introduced into the host, is integrated into the genome and replicated together with the chromosome(s) into which it has been integrated. Thus, an expression vector may additionally contain an element(s) that permits integration of the vector into the host's genome.

An expression vector of the invention preferably contains one or more selectable markers which permit easy selection of transformed hosts. For example, an expression vector may comprise a gene that confers antibiotic resistance (e.g., ampicillin, kanamycin, chloramphenicol or tetracycline resistance) to the recombinant host organism, e.g., a bacterial cell such as E. coli, H. alvei, or C. glutamicum.

Although any suitable expression vector may be used to incorporate the desired sequences, readily available bacterial expression vectors include, without limitation: plasmids such as pSClOl, pBR322, pBBR1MCS-3, pUR, pET, pEX, pMR100, pCR4, pBAD24, p15a, pACYC, pUC, e.g., pUC18 or pUC19, or plasmids derived from these plasmids; and bacteriophages, such as M1 3 phage and λ phage. One of ordinary skill in the art, however, can readily determine through routine experimentation whether any particular expression vector is suited for any given host cell. For example, the expression vector can be introduced into the host cell, which is then monitored for viability and expression of the sequences contained in the vector.

Expression vectors of the invention may be introduced into the host cell using any number of well-known methods, including calcium chloride-based methods, electroporation, or any other method known in the art.

Host Cells

The present invention provides for a genetically modified host cell that is engineered to express a CadA variant polypeptide of the invention. A genetically modified host strain of the present invention typically comprises at least one additional genetic modification to enhance production of an amino acid or amino acid derivative relative to a control strain that does not have the one additional genetic modification, e.g., a wildtype strain or a cell of the same strain without the one additional genetic modification. An “additional genetic modification to enhance production of an amino acid or amino acid derivative” can be any genetic modification. In some embodiments, the genetic modification is the introduction of a polynucleotide that expresses an enzyme involved in the synthesis of the amino acid or amino acid derivative. In some embodiments, the host cell comprises multiple modifications to increase production, relative to a wildtype host cell, of an amino acid or amino acid derivative.

In some aspects, genetic modification of a host cell to express a CadA variant polypeptide is performed in conjunction with modifying the host cell to overexpress one or more lysine biosynthesis polypeptides.

In some embodiments, a host cell may be genetically modified to express one or more polypeptides that affect lysine biosynthesis. Examples of lysine biosynthesis polypeptides include the E. coli genes SucA, Ppc, AspC, LysC, Asd, DapA, DapB, DapD, ArgD, DapE, DapF, LysA, Ddh, PntAB, CyoABE, GadAB, YbjE, GdhA, GltA, SucC, GadC, AcnB, PflB, ThrA, AceA, AceB, GltB, AceE, SdhA, MurE, SpeE, SpeG, PuuA, PuuP, and YgjG, or the corresponding genes from other organisms Such genes are known in the art (see, e.g., Shah et al., J. Med. Sci. 2:152-157, 2002; Anastassiadia, S. Recent Patents on Biotechnol. 1: 11-24, 2007). See, also, Kind, et al., Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 91: 1287-1296, 2011 for a review of genes involved in cadaverine production. Illustrative genes encoding lysine biosynthesis polypeptides are provided below.

GenBank Protein Gene EC Number Accession No. α-ketogultarate dehydrogenase (SucA) sucA 1.2.4.2 YP_489005.1 Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PPC) ppc 4.1.1.31 AAC76938.1 aspartate transaminase (AspC) aspC 2.6.1.1 AAC74014.1 aspartate kinase (LysC) lysC 2.7.2.4 NP_418448.1 aspartate semialdehyde dehydrogenase (Asd) asd 1.2.1.11 AAC76458.1 dihydrodipicolinate synthase (DapA) dapA 4.3.3.7 NP_416973.1 dihydropicolinate reductase (DapB) dapB 1.17.1.8 AAC73142.1 tetrahydrodipicoinate succinylase (DapD) dapD 2.3.1.117 AAC73277.1 N-succinyldiaminopimelate aminotransferase (ArgD) argD 2.6.1.11 AAC76384.1 N-succinyl-L-diaminopimelate deacylase (DapE) dapE 3.5.1.18 AAC75525.1 diaminopimelate epimerase (DapF) dapF 5.1.1.7 AAC76812.2 diaminopimelate decarboxylase (LysA) lysA 4.1.1.20 AAC75877.1 meso-diaminopimelate dehydrogenase (Ddh) ddh NA P04964.1 pyridine nucleotide transhydrogenase (PntAB) pntAB NA AAC74675.1, AAC74674.1 cytochrome O oxidase (CyoABE) cycABE 1.10.3.10 AAC73535.1, AAC73534.1, AAC73531.1 glutamate decarboxylase (GadAB) gadAB 4.1.1.15 AAC76542.1, AAC74566.1 L-amino acid efflux transporter (YbjE) ybjE NA AAC73961.2 glutamate dehydrogenase (GdhA) gdhA 1.4.1.4 AAC74831.1 citrate synthase (GltA) gltA 2.3.3.1/2.3.3.16 AAC73814.1 succinyl-coA synthase (SucC) sucC 6.2.1.5 AAC73822.1 glutamate-GABA antiporter (GadC) gadC NA AAC74565.1 aconitase B (AcnB) acnB 4.2.1.99 AAC73229.1 pyruvate-formate lyase (PflB) pflB NA AAC73989.1 aspartate kinase/homoserine dehydrogenase (ThrA) thrA 2.7.2.4 AAC73113.1 isocitrate lyase (AceA) aceA 4.1.3.1 AAC76985.1 malate synthase (AceB) aceB 2.3.3.9 AAC76984.1 glutmate synthase (GltB) gltB 1.4.1.13 AAC76244.2 pyruvate dehydrogenase (AceE) aceE 1.2.4.1 AAC73225.1 succinate dehydrogenase (SdhA) sdhA 1.3.5.1 AAC73817.1 UDP-N-acetylmuramoyl-L-alanyl-D-glutamate: murE 6.3.2.13 AAC73196.1 meso-diaminopimelate ligase (MurE) putrescine/cadaverine speE 2.5.1.16 AAC73232.1 aminopropyltransferase (SpeE) spermidine acetyltransferase (SpeG) speG NA AAC74656.1 glutamate-putrescine/glutamate-cadaverine puuA NA AAC74379.2 ligase (PuuA) putrescine importer (PuuP) puuP NA AAC74378.2 putrescine/cadaverine aminotransferase (YgjG) ygjG 2.6.1.82 AAC76108.3

In some embodiments, a host cell may be genetically modified to attenuate or reduce the expression of one or more polypeptides that affect lysine biosynthesis. Examples of such polypeptides include the E. coli genes Pck, Pgi, DeaD, CitE, MenE, PoxB, AceA, AceB, AceE, RpoC, and ThrA, or the corresponding genes from other organisms. Such genes are known in the art (see, e.g., Shah et al., J. Med. Sci. 2:152-157, 2002; Anastassiadia, S. Recent Patents on Biotechnol. 1: 11-24, 2007). See, also, Kind, et al., Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 91: 1287-1296, 2011 for a review of genes attenuated to increase cadaverine production. Illustrative genes encoding polypeptides whose attenuation increases lysine biosynthesis are provided below.

GenBank Accession Protein Gene EC Number No. PEP carboxykinase (Pck) pck 4.1.1.49 NP_417862 Glucose-6-phosphate isomerase (Pgi) pgi 5.3.1.9 NP_418449 DEAD-box RNA helicase (DeaD) deaD NP_417631 citrate lyase (CitE) citE 4.1.3.6/4.1.3.34 NP_415149 o-succinylbenzoate-CoA ligase (MenE) menE 6.2.1.26 NP_416763 pyruvate oxidase (PoxB) poxB 1.2.2.2 NP_415392 isocitrate lyase (AceA) aceA 4.1.3.1 NP_418439 malate synthase A (AceB) aceB 2.3.3.9 NP_418438 pyruvate dehydrogenase (aceE) aceE 1.2.4.1 NP_414656 RNA polymerase b′ subunit (RpoC) rpoC 2.7.7.6 NP_418415 aspartokinase I (ThrA) thrA 2.7.2.4/1.1.1.3 NP_414543

Nucleic acids encoding a lysine biosynthesis polypeptide may be introduced into the host cell along with a polynucleotide encoding a CadA variant polypeptide, e.g., encoded on a single expression vector, or introduced in multiple expression vectors at the same time. Alternatively, the host cell may be genetically modified to overexpress one or more lysine biosynthesis polypeptides before or after the host cells genetically modified to express a CadA variant polypeptide.

A host cell engineered to express a CadA variant polypeptide is typically a bacterial host cell. In typical embodiments, the bacterial host cell is a Gram-negative bacterial host cell. In some embodiments of the invention, the bacterium is an enteric bacterium. In some embodiments of the invention, the bacterium is a species of the genus Corynebacterium, Escherichia, Pseudomonas, Zymomonas, Shewanella, Salmonella, Shigella, Enterobacter, Citrobacter, Cronobacter, Erwinia, Serratia, Proteus, Hafnia, Yersinia, Morganella, Edwardsiella, or Klebsiella taxonomical classes. In some embodiments, the host cells are members of the genus Escherichia, Hafnia, or Corynebacterium. In some embodiments, the host cell is an Escherichia coli, Hafnia alvei, or Corynebacterium glutamicum host cell. In some embodiments, the host cell is Escherichia coli. In some embodiments, the host cell is Hafnia alvei. In some embodiments, the host cell is Corynebacterium glutamicum.

In some embodiments, the host cell is a gram-positive bacterial host cell, such as a Bacillus sp., e.g., Bacillus subtilis or Bacillus licheniformis; or another Bacillus sp. such as B. alcalophilus, B. aminovorans, B. amyloliquefaciens, B. caldolyticus, B. circulans, B. stearothermophilus, B. thermoglucosidasius, B. thuringiensis or B. vulgatis.

Host cells modified in accordance with the invention can be screened for increased production of lysine or a lysine derivative, such as cadaverine, as described herein.

In some embodiments, a CadA variant polypeptide of the present invention may be recovered from a host cell that expresses the variant polypeptide. In some embodiments, the recovered variant protein may be immobilized onto a solid substrate or inert material to form an immobilized enzyme. In one embodiment, the immobilized enzyme may have improved operational stability than the soluble form of the fusion protein.

Methods of Producing Lysine or a Lysine Derivative.

A host cell genetically modified to overexpress a CadA variant polypeptide of the invention can be employed to produce lysine or a derivative of lysine. In some embodiments, the host cell produces cadaverine. Thus, for example, to produce cadaverine, a host cell genetically modified to express a CadA variant polypeptide as described herein can be cultured under conditions suitable to allow expression of the polypeptide and expression of genes that encode the enzymes that are used to produce lysine and/or cadaverine. A host cell modified in accordance with the invention to express a CadA variant polypeptide provides a higher yield of cadaverine relative to a counterpart host cell that expresses native CadA.

Host cells may be cultured using well known techniques (see, e.g., the illustrative conditions provided in the examples section.

In some embodiments, host cells are cultured using nitrogen sources that are not salts (e.g., ammonium sulfate or ammonium chloride), such as ammonia or urea. Host cells may be cultured at an alkaline pH during cell growth or enzyme production.

The lysine or lysine derivative then be separated and purified using known techniques. Lysine or lysine derivatives, e.g., cadverine, produced in accordance with the invention may then be used in any known process, e.g., to produce a polyamide.

In some embodiments, lysine may be converted to caprolactam using chemical catalysts or by using enzymes and chemical catalysts.

The present invention will be described in greater detail by way of specific examples. The following examples are offered for illustrative purposes, and are not intended to limit the invention in any manner Those of skill in the art will readily recognize a variety of noncritical parameters, which can be changed or modified to yield essentially the same results.

EXAMPLES

We hypothesized that the decamer-decamer interface contains segments of the protein in the core domain, and is composed of sections of the protein without a defined secondary structure (α, alpha helix; β, beta sheet; η, strand) (see Kanjee et al.,) within those domains. These sections are the amino acids 276-299 between β10 and β11 that includes η4 and α11, the amino acids 314-326 between β11 and α12 that includes β12, the amino acids 344-357 between η6 and β14, the amino acids 454-483 between β16 and β18 that includes β17, and the amino acids 494-509 between β19 and α17. These examples show that glutamate residues at these positions can be substituted to increase production of cadaverine by host cells that are genetically modified to express the CadA variant polypeptide.

Example 1: Construction of Plasmid Vectors that Encode CadA

A plasmid vector containing wild-type E. coli cadA (SEQ ID NO: 1), which encodes the lysine decarboxylase CadA (SEQ ID NO: 2), was amplified from the E. coli MG1655 K12 genomic DNA using the PCR primers cadA-F and cadA-R (FIG. 1), digested using the restriction enzymes SacI and XbaI, and ligated into pUC18 to generate the plasmid pCIB60. The 5′ sequence upstream of the cadA gene was optimized using the PCR primers cadA-F2 and cadA-R2 to create pCIB71.

Example 2: Construction of Plasmid Vectors that Encode CadA with Cysteine Mutations at the Predicted Interfacial Amino Acid Residues

Primer pairs were designed to modify the amino acid at positions 291, 344, 355, 463, 482, or 499 to cysteine of the cadA gene in pCIB71 using Quickchange PCR. The mutations were verified using DNA sequencing, and the plasmids carrying the cysteine mutations were labeled pCIB71-E291C, pCIB71-E344C, pCIB71-E355C, pCIB71-E463C, pCIB71-E482C, or pCIB71-E499C.

Example 3: Lysine Decarboxylase Activity of Mutant CadA Polypeptides with Cysteine Mutations at the Predicted Interfacial Amino Acid Residues

[H. alvei was transformed with pCIB71-E291C, pCIB71-E344C, pCIB71-E355C, pCIB71-E463C, pCIB71-E482C, or pCIB71-E499C. Three single colonies from each transformation were grown overnight at 37° C. in 4 mL of LB medium with ampicillin (100 μg/mL). The following day, 0.7 mL of each overnight culture was added to 0.3 mL of lysine-HCl and PLP to a final concentration of 120 g/L and 0.1 mM, respectively. The final mixture was adjusted to pH 8.0 with 1M NaOH. Each mixture was incubated at 37° C. for 2 hours. Cadaverine production from each sample was quantified using NMR, and yield was calculated by dividing the molar amount of cadaverine produced by the molar amount of lysine added. The average yield from each sample relative to the average yield from H. alvei transformed with pCIB71 after 2 hours is presented in Table 2.

TABLE 2 Relative cadaverine yield at pH 8 by H. alvei strains expressing plasmids encoding CadA polypeptides with mutations at the predicted interfacial amino acid residues. Plasmid Relative Yield (%) pCIB71 100 pCIB71-E291C 188 pCIB71-E344C 110 pCIB71-E355C 170 pCIB71-E463C 120 pCIB71-E482C 137 pCIB71-E499C 112

As shown in Table 2, several mutations improved the activity of the CadA polypeptide at pH 8.0. The mutations E291C, E355C, and E482C significantly increased relative yield by more than 30%. The mutations E344C, E463C, and E499C increased yield by 10% to 30%.

Example 4: Construction of Plasmid Vectors that Encode CadA with Cysteine Mutations at Predicted Interfacial Amino Acid Residues with Deviant pKa's and Analysis of Lysine Decarboxylase of the Mutated Proteins

This example show that modification of predicted interfacial amino acid residues did not enhance cadaverine production.

Primer pairs were designed to modify the amino acid at positions 279, 288, 319, 323, 346, 353, 357, or 470 to cysteine of the cadA gene in pCIB71 using Quickchange PCR. The mutations were verified using DNA sequencing, and the plasmids carrying the cysteine mutations were labeled pCIB71-E279C, pCIB71-R288C, pCIB71-K319C, pCIB71-D323C, pCIB71-K346C, pCIB71-R353C, pCIB71-K357C, or pCIB71-D470C.

H. alvei was transformed with pCIB71-E279C, pCIB71-R288C, pCIB71-K319C, pCIB71-D323C, pCIB71-K346C, pCIB71-R353C, pCIB71-K357C, and pCIB71-D470C. Three single colonies from each transformation were grown overnight at 37° C. in 4 mL of LB medium with ampicillin (100 μg/mL). The following day, 0.7 mL of each overnight culture was added to 0.3 mL of lysine-HCl and PLP to a final concentration of 120 g/L and 0.1 mM, respectively. The final mixture was adjusted to pH 8.0 with 1M NaOH. Each mixture was incubated at 37° C. for 2 hours. Cadaverine production from each sample was quantified using NMR, and yield was calculated by dividing the molar amount of cadaverine produced by the molar amount of lysine added. The average yield from each sample relative to the average yield from H. alvei transformed with pCIB71 after 2 hours is presented in Table 3. As shown in Table 3, all fo the mutations decreased cadaverine yield at pH 8.0.

TABLE 3 Relative cadaverine yield at pH 8 by H. alvei strains expressing plasmids encoding CadA polypeptides with mutations at the predicted interfacial amino acid residues with deviant pKa's. Relative Relative Yield Yield Plasmid (%) Plasmid (%) pCIB71 100 pCIB71-K346C 81 pCIB71-E279C 60 pCIB71-R353C 75 pCIB71-R288C 67 pCIB71-K357C 79 pCIB71K319C 82 pCIB71-D470C 60 pCIB71-D323C 85

Example 5: Construction of Plasmid Vectors that Encode CadA with a Mutation at E291

Primer pairs were designed to modify the amino acid at position 291 of the cadA gene in pCIB71 using Quickchange PCR. The mutations were verified using DNA sequencing, and the plasmids carrying each mutation at amino acid position 291 were labeled pCIB71-E291X, where X is the amino acid that replaced the glutamate residue.

Example 6: Construction of Plasmid Vectors that Encode CadA with a Mutation at E355

Primer pairs were designed to modify the amino acid at position 355 of the cadA gene in pCIB71 using Quickchange PCR. The mutations were verified using DNA sequencing, and the plasmids carrying each mutation at amino acid position 355 were labeled pCIB71-E355X, where X is the amino acid that replaced the glutamate residue.

Example 7: Construction of Plasmid Vectors that Encode CadA with a Mutation at E482

Primer pairs were designed to modify the amino acid at position 468 of the cadA gene in pCIB71 using Quickchange PCR. The mutations were verified using DNA sequencing, and the plasmids carrying each mutation at amino acid position 482 were labeled pCIB71-E482X, where X is the amino acid that replaced the glutamate residue.

Example 8: Lysine Decarboxylase Activity of Mutant CadA Polypeptides with a E291X Mutation

H. alvei was transformed with pCIB71-E291X. Three single colonies from each transformation were grown overnight at 37° C. in 4 mL of LB medium with ampicillin (100 μg/mL). The following day, 0.7 mL of each overnight culture was added to 0.3 mL of lysine-HCl and PLP to a final concentration of 120 g/L and 0.1 mM, respectively. The final mixture was adjusted to pH 8.0 with 1M NaOH. Each mixture was incubated at 37° C. for 2 hours. Cadaverine production from each sample was quantified using NMR, and yield was calculated by dividing the molar amount of cadaverine produced by the molar amount of lysine added. The yield from each sample relative to the average yield from H. alvei transformed with pCIB71 after 2 hours is presented in Table 4.

TABLE 4 Relative cadaverine yield at pH 8 by H. alvei strains expressing plasmids encoding CadA polypeptides with mutations at amino acid position 291. Relative Relative Yield Yield Plasmid (%) Plasmid (%) pCIB71 100 pCIB71-E291M 97 pCIB71-E291A 126 pCIB71-E291N 120 pCIB71-E291C 148 pCIB71-E291P 4 pCIB71-E291D 135 pCIB71-E291Q 98 pCIB71-E291F 82 pCIB71-E291R 127 pCIB71-E291G 120 pCIB71-E291S 108 pCIB71-E291H 131 pCIB71-E291T 96 pCIB71-E291I 98 pCIB71-E291V 135 pCIB71-E291K 111 pCIB71-E291W 74 pCIB71-E291L 100 pCIB71-E291Y 80

As shown in Table 4, several mutations at amino acid position 291 improved the activity of the CadA polypeptide at pH 8.0. The mutations E291A, E291C, E291D, E291H, E291R, and E291V increased relative yield by more than 25%. The mutations E291G, E291K, E291N, and E291S also increased yield. The mutations E291I, E291L, E291M, E291Q, and E291T had little effect on yield. The remaining mutations E291F, E291P, E291W, and E291Y decreased yield.

Example 9: Lysine Decarboxylase Activity of Mutant CadA Polypeptides with a E355X Mutation

H. alvei was transformed with pCIB71-E355X. Three single colonies from each transformation were grown overnight at 37° C. in 4 mL of LB medium with ampicillin (100 μg/mL). The following day, 0.7 mL of each overnight culture was added to 0.3 mL of lysine-HCl and PLP to a final concentration of 120 g/L and 0.1 mM, respectively. The final mixture was adjusted to pH 8.0 with 1M NaOH. Each mixture was incubated at 37° C. for 2 hours. Cadaverine production from each sample was quantified using NMR, and yield was calculated by dividing the molar amount of cadaverine produced by the molar amount of lysine added. The yield from each sample relative to the average yield from H. alvei transformed with pCIB71 after 2 hours is presented in Table 5.

TABLE 5 Relative cadaverine yield at pH 8 by H. alvei strains expressing plasmids encoding CadA polypeptides with mutations at amino acid position 355. Relative Relative Yield Yield Plasmid (%) Plasmid (%) pCIB71 100 pCIB71-E355M 141 pCIB71-E355A 0 pCIB71-E355N 135 pCIB71-E355C 157 pCIB71-E355P 150 pCIB71-E355D 97 pCIB71-E355Q 151 pCIB71-E355F 149 pCIB71-E355R 152 pCIB71-E355G 0 pCIB71-E355S 143 pCIB71-E355H 147 pCIB71-E355T 148 pCIB71-E355I 104 pCIB71-E355V 145 pCIB71-E355K 139 pCIB71-E355W 111 pCIB71-E355L 136 pCIB71-E355Y 141

As shown in Table 5, the majority of mutations at amino acid position 355 improved yield at pH 8.0, with the exception of E355A, E355D, E355G, E355I, and E355W. The mutations E355D, E355I, and E355W had little effect on yield. The mutations E355A and E355G decreased yield.

Example 10: Lysine Decarboxylase Activity of Mutant CadA Polypeptides with a E482X Mutation

H. alvei was transformed with pCIB71-E482X. Three single colonies from each transformation were grown overnight at 37° C. in 4 mL of LB medium with ampicillin (100 μg/mL). The following day, 0.7 mL of each overnight culture was added to 0.3 mL of lysine-HCl and PLP to a final concentration of 120 g/L and 0.1 mM, respectively. The final mixture was adjusted to pH 8.0 with 1M NaOH. Each mixture was incubated at 37° C. for 2 hours. Cadaverine production from each sample was quantified using NMR, and yield was calculated by dividing the molar amount of cadaverine produced by the molar amount of lysine added. The yield from each sample relative to the average yield from H. alvei transformed with pCIB71 after 2 hours is presented in Table 6.

TABLE 6 Relative cadaverine yield at pH 8 by H. alvei strains expressing plasmids encoding CadA polypeptides with mutations at amino acid position 482. Relative Relative Yield Yield Plasmid (%) Plasmid (%) pCIB71 100 pCIB71-E482M 116 pCIB71-E482A 122 pCIB71-E482N 93 pCIB71-E482C 140 pCIB71-E482P 69 pCIB71-E482D 94 pCIB71-E482Q 73 pCIB71-E482F 135 pCIB71-E482R 89 pCIB71-E482G 86 pCIB71-E482S 126 pCIB71-E482H 119 pCIB71-E482T 74 pCIB71-E482I 147 pCIB71-E482V 85 pCIB71-E482K 112 pCIB71-E482W 126 pCIB71-E482L 128 pCIB71-E482Y 138

As shown in Table 6, several mutations at amino acid position 482 improved the activity of the CadA polypeptide at pH 8.0. The mutations E482C, E482F, E482I, E482L, E482S, E482W, and E482Y increased relative yield by more than 25%. The mutations E482A, E482H, E482K, and E482M also increased yield. The mutations E482D and E482N had little effect on yield. The remaining mutations E482G, E482P, E482Q, E482R, E482T, and E482V decreased yield.

Example 11: In Vitro Kinetic Analysis of Mutant CadA Polypeptides at Alkaline pH Conditions

100 mL samples of H. avlei transformed with either pCIB71, pCIB71-E291C, pCIB71-E355C, and pCIB71-E482C were lysed with a french press. The lysed samples were centrifuged, and the supernatant was separated from the pellet in order to perform in vitro experiments. Each reaction was performed in Tris-HCl buffer (50 mM Tris-HCl either pH 6 or 8, 25 mM NaCl, 2 mM EDTA) with 120 g/L lysine-HCl and 0.1 mM PLP. The reaction rate of each lysed sample was measured using NMR by sampling the amount of lysine converted in the presence of PLP into cadaverine every 1.6 minutes for a total of 20 minutes, and taking the slope of the linear portion of the yield curve. The samples were diluted so that the reaction rate U (mmol/min/mL) of each sample was 4. The kinetic constants Vmax and Km for lysine of each lysed samples was measured using the same U at an initial pH of either 6 or pH 8. The results of the kinetic analysis of the two samples are shown in Table 7.

TABLE 7 Kinetic analysis of normalized Vmax of lysed samples of H. avlei expressing plasmids encoding wild-type or mutant CadA polypeptides under different pH conditions. pH pCIB71 pCIB71-E291C pCIB71-E355C pCIB71-E482C 6 100% 100% 100% 100% 8  73%  88%  91%  90%

As shown in Table 7, wild-type CadA (pCIB71) lost 27% of activity at pH 8 compared to pH 6. Surprisingly, the mutant CadA polypeptides (pCIB71-E291C, pCIB71-E355C, and pCIB71-E486C) showed significantly higher activity at pH 8 compared to wild-type CadA polypeptide despite there being no significant difference in activity between the wild-type and mutants at pH 6.

TABLE 8 Table of plasmids and strains used in Examples. Protein(s) Host Overexpressed Plasmid Hafnia alvei CadA pCIB71 Hafnia alvei CadA E291A pCIB71-E291A Hafnia alvei CadA E291C pCIB71-E291C Hafnia alvei CadA E291D pCIB71-E291D Hafnia alvei CadA E291F pCIB71-E291F Hafnia alvei CadA E291G pCIB71-E291G Hafnia alvei CadA E291H pCIB71-E291H Hafnia alvei CadA E291I pCIB71-E291I Hafnia alvei CadA E291K pCIB71-E291K Hafnia alvei CadA E291L pCIB71-E291L Hafnia alvei CadA E291M pCIB71-E291M Hafnia alvei CadA E291N pCIB71-E291N Hafnia alvei CadA E291P pCIB71-E291P Hafnia alvei CadA E291Q pCIB71-E291Q Hafnia alvei CadA E291R pCIB71-E291R Hafnia alvei CadA E291S pCIB71-E291S Hafnia alvei CadA E291T pCIB71-E291T Hafnia alvei CadA E291V pCIB71-E291V Hafnia alvei CadA E291W pCIB71-E291W Hafnia alvei CadA E291Y pCIB71-E291Y Hafnia alvei CadA E355A pCIB71-E355A Hafnia alvei CadA E355C pCIB71-E355C Hafnia alvei CadA E355D pCIB71-E355D Hafnia alvei CadA E355F pCIB71-E355F Hafnia alvei CadA E355G pCIB71-E355G Hafnia alvei CadA E355H pCIB71-E355H Hafnia alvei CadA E355I pCIB71-E355I Hafnia alvei CadA E355K pCIB71-E355K Hafnia alvei CadA E355L pCIB71-E355L Hafnia alvei CadA E355M pCIB71-E355M Hafnia alvei CadA E355N pCIB71-E355N Hafnia alvei CadA E355P pCIB71-E355P Hafnia alvei CadA E355Q pCIB71-E355Q Hafnia alvei CadA E355R pCIB71-E355R Hafnia alvei CadA E3555 pCIB71-E3555 Hafnia alvei CadA E355T pCIB71-E355T Hafnia alvei CadA E355V pCIB71-E355V Hafnia alvei CadA E355W pCIB71-E355W Hafnia alvei CadA E355Y pCIB71-E355Y Hafnia alvei CadA E482A pCIB71-E482A Hafnia alvei CadA E482C pCIB71-E482C Hafnia alvei CadA E482D pCIB71-E482D Hafnia alvei CadA E482F pCIB71-E482F Hafnia alvei CadA E482G pCIB71-E482G Hafnia alvei CadA E482H pCIB71-E482H Hafnia alvei CadA E482I pCIB71-E482I Hafnia alvei CadA E482K pCIB71-E482K Hafnia alvei CadA E482L pCIB71-E482L Hafnia alvei CadA E482M pCIB71-E482M Hafnia alvei CadA E482N pCIB71-E482N Hafnia alvei CadA E482P pCIB71-E482P Hafnia alvei CadA E482Q pCIB71-E482Q Hafnia alvei CadA E482R pCIB71-E482R Hafnia alvei CadA E482S pCIB71-E482S Hafnia alvei CadA E482T pCIB71-E482T Hafnia alvei CadA E482V pCIB71-E482V Hafnia alvei CadA E482W pCIB71-E482W Hafnia alvei CadA E482Y pCIB71-E482Y

TABLE 9 Table of primer sequences used in Examples. Name Sequence (5′-3′) cadA-F GGCGAGCTCACACAGGAAACAGACCATGAACGTTATTGCA ATATTGAATCAC cadA-R GGCTCTAGACCACTTCCCTTGTACGAGC cadA-F2 ATTTCACACAGGAAACAGCTATGAACGTTATTGCAATATT GAAT cadA-R2 AGCTGTTTCCTGTGTGAAAT E291A-F GCGCGTGAAAAGCACACCAAACGCAACCTGGCC E291A-R CGTTTGGTGTGCTTTTCACGCGCTTAGCAATG E291C-F AAGCGCGTGAAATGTACACCAAACGCAACCTGGCCGGTAC E291C-R GTTGCGTTTGGTGTACATTTCACGCGCTTAGCAATGGTAG E291D-F GCGCGTGAAAGATACACCAAACGCAACCTGGCC E291D-R CGTTTGGTGTATCTTTCACGCGCTTAGCAATG E291F-F GCGCGTGAAATTCACACCAAACGCAACCTGGCC E291F-R CGTTTGGTGTGAATTTCACGCGCTTAGCAATG E291G-F GCGCGTGAAAGGTACACCAAACGCAACCTGGCC E291G-R CGTTTGGTGTACCTTTCACGCGCTTAGCAATG E291H-F GCGCGTGAAACATACACCAAACGCAACCTGGCC E291H-R CGTTTGGTGTATGTTTCACGCGCTTAGCAATG E291I-F GCGCGTGAAAATCACACCAAACGCAACCTGGCC E291I-R CGTTTGGTGTGATTTTCACGCGCTTAGCAATG E291K-F GCGCGTGAAAAAGACACCAAACGCAACCTGGCC E291K-R CGTTTGGTGTCTTTTTCACGCGCTTAGCAATG E291L-F GCGCGTGAAACTAACACCAAACGCAACCTGGCC E291L-R CGTTTGGTGTTAGTTTCACGCGCTTAGCAATG E291M-F GCGCGTGAAAATGACACCAAACGCAACCTGGCC E291M-R CGTTTGGTGTCATTTTCACGCGCTTAGCAATG E291N-F GCGCGTGAAAAACACACCAAACGCAACCTGGCC E291N-R CGTTTGGTGTGTTTTTCACGCGCTTAGCAATG E291P-F GCGCGTGAAACCAACACCAAACGCAACCTGGCC E291P-R CGTTTGGTGTTGGTTTCACGCGCTTAGCAATG E291Q-F GCGCGTGAAACAAACACCAAACGCAACCTGGCC E291Q-R CGTTTGGTGTTTGTTTCACGCGCTTAGCAATG E291R-F GCGCGTGAAACGTACACCAAACGCAACCTGGCC E291R-R CGTTTGGTGTACGTTTCACGCGCTTAGCAATG E291S-F GCGCGTGAAATCAACACCAAACGCAACCTGGCC E291S-R CGTTTGGTGTTGATTTCACGCGCTTAGCAATG E291T-F GCGCGTGAAAACTACACCAAACGCAACCTGGCC E291T-R CGTTTGGTGTAGTTTTCACGCGCTTAGCAATG E291V-F GCGCGTGAAAGTAACACCAAACGCAACCTGGCC E291V-R CGTTTGGTGTTACTTTCACGCGCTTAGCAATG E291W-F GCGCGTGAAATGGACACCAAACGCAACCTGGCC E291W-R CGTTTGGTGTCCATTTCACGCGCTTAGCAATG E291Y-F GCGCGTGAAATACACACCAAACGCAACCTGGCC E291Y-R CGTTTGGTGTGTATTTCACGCGCTTAGCAATG E355A-F CGGTGGCCGTGTAGCAGGGAAAGTGATTTACGAAACCCAG E355A-R AATCACTTTCCCTGCTACACGGCCACCGCTCATACCGCAT E355C-F CGGTGGCCGTGTATGTGGGAAAGTGATTTACGAAACCCAG E355C-R AATCACTTTCCCACATACACGGCCACCGCTCATACCGCAT E355D-F CGGTGGCCGTGTAGACGGGAAAGTGATTTACGAAACCCAG E355D-R AATCACTTTCCCGTCTACACGGCCACCGCTCATACCGCAT E355F-F CGGTGGCCGTGTATTCGGGAAAGTGATTTACGAAACCCAG E355F-R AATCACTTTCCCGAATACACGGCCACCGCTCATACCGCAT E355G-F CGGTGGCCGTGTAGGAGGGAAAGTGATTTACGAAACCCAG E355G-R AATCACTTTCCCTCCTACACGGCCACCGCTCATACCGCAT E355H-F CGGTGGCCGTGTACATGGGAAAGTGATTTACGAAACCCAG E355H-R AATCACTTTCCCATGTACACGGCCACCGCTCATACCGCAT E355I-F CGGTGGCCGTGTAATCGGGAAAGTGATTTACGAAACCCAG E355I-R AATCACTTTCCCGATTACACGGCCACCGCTCATACCGCAT E355K-F CGGTGGCCGTGTAAAAGGGAAAGTGATTTACGAAACCCAG E355K-R AATCACTTTCCCTTTTACACGGCCACCGCTCATACCGCAT E355L-F CGGTGGCCGTGTACTGGGGAAAGTGATTTACGAAACCCAG E355L-R AATCACTTTCCCCAGTACACGGCCACCGCTCATACCGCAT E355M-F CGGTGGCCGTGTAATGGGGAAAGTGATTTACGAAACCCAG E355M-R AATCACTTTCCCCATTACACGGCCACCGCTCATACCGCAT E355N-F CGGTGGCCGTGTAAACGGGAAAGTGATTTACGAAACCCAG E355N-R AATCACTTTCCCGTTTACACGGCCACCGCTCATACCGCAT E355P-F CGGTGGCCGTGTACCAGGGAAAGTGATTTACGAAACCCAG E355P-R AATCACTTTCCCTGGTACACGGCCACCGCTCATACCGCAT E355Q-F CGGTGGCCGTGTACAAGGGAAAGTGATTTACGAAACCCAG E355Q-R AATCACTTTCCCTTGTACACGGCCACCGCTCATACCGCAT E355R-F CGGTGGCCGTGTACGTGGGAAAGTGATTTACGAAACCCAG E355R-R AATCACTTTCCCACGTACACGGCCACCGCTCATACCGCAT E355S-F CGGTGGCCGTGTATCAGGGAAAGTGATTTACGAAACCCAG E355S-R AATCACTTTCCCTGATACACGGCCACCGCTCATACCGCAT E355T-F CGGTGGCCGTGTAACAGGGAAAGTGATTTACGAAACCCAG E355T-R AATCACTTTCCCTGTTACACGGCCACCGCTCATACCGCAT E355V-F CGGTGGCCGTGTAGTAGGGAAAGTGATTTACGAAACCCAG E355V-R AATCACTTTCCCTACTACACGGCCACCGCTCATACCGCAT E355W-F CGGTGGCCGTGTATGGGGGAAAGTGATTTACGAAACCCAG E355W-R AATCACTTTCCCCCATACACGGCCACCGCTCATACCGCAT E355Y-F CGGTGGCCGTGTATACGGGAAAGTGATTTACGAAACCCAG E355Y-R AATCACTTTCCCGTATACACGGCCACCGCTCATACCGCAT E482A-F CATCGATAACGCCCACATGTATCTTGACCCGATCAAAGTC E482A-R GATACATGTGGGCGTTATCGATGTTTTTGAAGCCGTGCC E482C-F CATCGATAACTGCCACATGTATCTTGACCCGATCAAAGTC E482C-R GATACATGTGGCAGTTATCGATGTTTTTGAAGCCGTGCC E482D-F CATCGATAACGATCACATGTATCTTGACCCGATCAAAGTC E482D-R GATACATGTGATCGTTATCGATGTTTTTGAAGCCGTGCC E482F-F CATCGATAACTTTCACATGTATCTTGACCCGATCAAAGTC E482F-R GATACATGTGAAAGTTATCGATGTTTTTGAAGCCGTGCC E482G-F CATCGATAACGGTCACATGTATCTTGACCCGATCAAAGTC E482G-R GATACATGTGACCGTTATCGATGTTTTTGAAGCCGTGCC E482H-F CATCGATAACCATCACATGTATCTTGACCCGATCAAAGTC E482H-R GATACATGTGATGGTTATCGATGTTTTTGAAGCCGTGCC E482I-F CATCGATAACATTCACATGTATCTTGACCCGATCAAAGTC E482I-R GATACATGTGAATGTTATCGATGTTTTTGAAGCCGTGCC E482K-F CATCGATAACAAACACATGTATCTTGACCCGATCAAAGTC E482K-R GATACATGTGTTTGTTATCGATGTTTTTGAAGCCGTGCC E482L-F CATCGATAACCTGCACATGTATCTTGACCCGATCAAAGTC E482L-R GATACATGTGCAGGTTATCGATGTTTTTGAAGCCGTGCC E482M-F CATCGATAACATGCACATGTATCTTGACCCGATCAAAGTC E482M-R GATACATGTGCATGTTATCGATGTTTTTGAAGCCGTGCC E482N-F CATCGATAACAACCACATGTATCTTGACCCGATCAAAGTC E482N-R GATACATGTGGTTGTTATCGATGTTTTTGAAGCCGTGCC E482P-F CATCGATAACCCGCACATGTATCTTGACCCGATCAAAGTC E482P-R GATACATGTGCGGGTTATCGATGTTTTTGAAGCCGTGCC E482Q-F CATCGATAACCAGCACATGTATCTTGACCCGATCAAAGTC E482Q-R GATACATGTGCTGGTTATCGATGTTTTTGAAGCCGTGCC E482R-F CATCGATAACCGTCACATGTATCTTGACCCGATCAAAGTC E482R-R GATACATGTGACGGTTATCGATGTTTTTGAAGCCGTGCC E482S-F CATCGATAACAGCCACATGTATCTTGACCCGATCAAAGTC E482S-R GATACATGTGGCTGTTATCGATGTTTTTGAAGCCGTGCC E482T-F CATCGATAACACCCACATGTATCTTGACCCGATCAAAGTC E482T-R GATACATGTGGGTGTTATCGATGTTTTTGAAGCCGTGCC E482V-F CATCGATAACGTGCACATGTATCTTGACCCGATCAAAGTC E482V-R GATACATGTGCACGTTATCGATGTTTTTGAAGCCGTGCC E482W-F CATCGATAACTGGCACATGTATCTTGACCCGATCAAAGTC E482W-R GATACATGTGCCAGTTATCGATGTTTTTGAAGCCGTGCC E482Y-F CATCGATAACTATCACATGTATCTTGACCCGATCAAAGTC E482Y-R GATACATGTGATAGTTATCGATGTTTTTGAAGCCGTGCC Illustrative Sequences:

Escherichia coli cadA nucleic acid sequence SEQ ID NO: 1 ATGAACGTTATTGCAATATTGAATCACATGGGGGTTTATTTTAAAGAAGA ACCCATCCGTGAACTTCATCGCGCGCTTGAACGTCTGAACTTCCAGATTG TTTACCCGAACGACCGTGACGACTTATTAAAACTGATCGAAAACAATGCG CGTCTGTGCGGCGTTATTTTTGACTGGGATAAATATAATCTCGAGCTGTG CGAAGAAATTAGCAAAATGAACGAGAACCTGCCGTTGTACGCGTTCGCTA ATACGTATTCCACTCTCGATGTAAGCCTGAATGACCTGCGTTTACAGATT AGCTTCTTTGAATATGCGCTGGGTGCTGCTGAAGATATTGCTAATAAGAT CAAGCAGACCACTGACGAATATATCAACACTATTCTGCCTCCGCTGACTA AAGCACTGTTTAAATATGTTCGTGAAGGTAAATATACTTTCTGTACTCCT GGTCACATGGGCGGTACTGCATTCCAGAAAAGCCCGGTAGGTAGCCTGTT CTATGATTTCTTTGGTCCGAATACCATGAAATCTGATATTTCCATTTCAG TATCTGAACTGGGTTCTCTGCTGGATCACAGTGGTCCACACAAAGAAGCA GAACAGTATATCGCTCGCGTCTTTAACGCAGACCGCAGCTACATGGTGAC CAACGGTACTTCCACTGCGAACAAAATTGTTGGTATGTACTCTGCTCCAG CAGGCAGCACCATTCTGATTGACCGTAACTGCCACAAATCGCTGACCCAC CTGATGATGATGAGCGATGTTACGCCAATCTATTTCCGCCCGACCCGTAA CGCTTACGGTATTCTTGGTGGTATCCCACAGAGTGAATTCCAGCACGCTA CCATTGCTAAGCGCGTGAAAGAAACACCAAACGCAACCTGGCCGGTACAT GCTGTAATTACCAACTCTACCTATGATGGTCTGCTGTACAACACCGACTT CATCAAGAAAACACTGGATGTGAAATCCATCCACTTTGACTCCGCGTGGG TGCCTTACACCAACTTCTCACCGATTTACGAAGGTAAATGCGGTATGAGC GGTGGCCGTGTAGAAGGGAAAGTGATTTACGAAACCCAGTCCACTCACAA ACTGCTGGCGGCGTTCTCTCAGGCTTCCATGATCCACGTTAAAGGTGACG TAAACGAAGAAACCTTTAACGAAGCCTACATGATGCACACCACCACTTCT CCGCACTACGGTATCGTGGCGTCCACTGAAACCGCTGCGGCGATGATGAA AGGCAATGCAGGTAAGCGTCTGATCAACGGTTCTATTGAACGTGCGATCA AATTCCGTAAAGAGATCAAACGTCTGAGAACGGAATCTGATGGCTGGTTC TTTGATGTATGGCAGCCGGATCATATCGATACGACTGAATGCTGGCCGCT GCGTTCTGACAGCACCTGGCACGGCTTCAAAAACATCGATAACGAGCACA TGTATCTTGACCCGATCAAAGTCACCCTGCTGACTCCGGGGATGGAAAAA GACGGCACCATGAGCGACTTTGGTATTCCGGCCAGCATCGTGGCGAAATA CCTCGACGAACATGGCATCGTTGTTGAGAAAACCGGTCCGTATAACCTGC TGTTCCTGTTCAGCATCGGTATCGATAAGACCAAAGCACTGAGCCTGCTG CGTGCTCTGACTGACTTTAAACGTGCGTTCGACCTGAACCTGCGTGTGAA AAACATGCTGCCGTCTCTGTATCGTGAAGATCCTGAATTCTATGAAAACA TGCGTATTCAGGAACTGGCTCAGAATATCCACAAACTGATTGTTCACCAC AATCTGCCGGATCTGATGTATCGCGCATTTGAAGTGCTGCCGACGATGGT AATGACTCCGTATGCTGCATTCCAGAAAGAGCTGCACGGTATGACCGAAG AAGTTTACCTCGACGAAATGGTAGGTCGTATTAACGCCAATATGATCCTT CCGTACCCGCCGGGAGTTCCTCTGGTAATGCCGGGTGAAATGATCACCGA AGAAAGCCGTCCGGTTCTGGAGTTCCTGCAGATGCTGTGTGAAATCGGCG CTCACTATCCGGGCTTTGAAACCGATATTCACGGTGCATACCGTCAGGCT GATGGCCGCTATACCGTTAAGGTATTGAAAGAAGAAAGCAAAAAATAA CadA polypeptide sequence SEQ ID NO: 2 MNVIAILNHMGVYFKEEPIRELHRALERLNFQIVYPNDRDDLLKLIENNA RLCGVIFDWDKYNLELCEEISKMNENLPLYAFANTYSTLDVSLNDLRLQI SFFEYALGAAEDIANKIKQTTDEYINTILPPLTKALFKYVREGKYTFCTP GHMGGTAFQKSPVGSLEYDFFGPNTMKSDISISVSELGSLLDHSGPHKEA EQYIARVFNADRSYMVTNGTSTANKIVGMYSAPAGSTILIDRNCHKSLTH LMMMSDVTPIYFRPTRNAYGILGGIPQSEFQHATIAKRVKETPNATWPVH AVITNSTYDGLLYNTDFIKKTLDVKSIHFDSAWVPYTNFSPIYEGKCGMS GGRVEGKVIYETQSTHKLLAAFSQASMIHVKGDVNEETFNEAYMMHTTTS PHYGIVASTETAAAMMKGNAGKRLINGSIERAIKFRKEIKRLRTESDGWF FDVWQPDHIDTTECWPLRSDSTWHGFKNIDNEHMYLDPIKVTLLTPGMEK DGTMSDFGIPASIVAKYLDEHGIVVEKTGPYNLLFLFSIGIDKTKALSLL RALTDFKRAFDLNLRVKNMLPSLYREDPEFYENMRIQELAQNIHKLIVHH NLPDLMYRAFEVLPTMVMTPYAAFQKELHGMTEEVYLDEMVGRINANMIL PYPPGVPLVMPGEMITEESRPVLEFLQMLCEIGAHYPGFETDIHGAYRQA DGRYTVKVLKEESKK Polypeptide from Klebsiella homologous to E. coli CadA SEQ ID NO: 3 MNVIAIMNHMGVYFKEEPIRELHRALERLDFRIVYPNDRDDLLKLIENNS RLCGVIFDWDKYNLELCEEISKMNEYMPLYAFANTYSTLDVSLNDLRMQV RFFEYALGAAEDIANKIKQNTDEYIDTILPPLTKALFKYVREGKYTFCTP GHMGGTAFQKSPVGSIFYDFFGPNTMKSDISISVSELGSLLDHSGPHKEA EEYIARVFNAERSYMVTNGTSTANKIVGMYSAPAGSTVLIDRNCHKSLTH LMMMSDITPIYFRPTRNAYGILGGIPQSEFQHATIAKRVKETPNATWPVH AVITNSTYDGLLYNTDFIKKTLDVKSIHFDSAWVPYTNFSPIYEGKCGMS GGRVEGKVIYETQSTHKLLAAFSQASMIHVKGDVNEETFNEAYMMHTTTS PHYGIVASTETAAAMMKGNAGKRLIDGSIERSIKFRKEIKRLKGESDGWF FDVWQPEHIDGPECWPLRSDSAWHGFKNIDNEHMYLDPIKVTLLTPGMKK DGTMDDFGIPASIVAKYLDEHGIVVEKTGPYNLLFLFSIGIDKTKALSLL RALTDFKRAFDLNLRVKNMLPSLYREDPEFYENMRIQDLAQNIHKLIEHH NLPDLMFRAFEVLPSMVMTPYAAFQKELHGQTEEVYLEEMVGRVNANMIL PYPPGVPLVMPGEMITEESRPVLEFLQMLCEIGAHYPGFETDIHGAYRQA DGRYTVKVLKEENNK Polypeptide from Enterobacteriaceae homologous to E. coli CadA SEQ ID NO: 4 MNVIAIMNHMGVYFKEEPIRELHRALERLDFRIVYPNDRDDLLKLIENNS RLCGVIFDWDKYNLELCEEISKMNEYMPLYAFANTYSTLDVSLNDLRMQV RFFEYALGAAEDIANKIKQNTDEYIDTILPPLTKALFKYVREGKYTFCTP GHMGGTAFQKSPVGSIFYDFFGSNTMKSDISISVSELGSLLDHSGPHKEA EEYIARVFNAERSYMVTNGTSTANKIVGMYSAPAGSTVLIDRNCHKSLTH LMMMSDITPIYFRPTRNAYGILGGIPQSEFQHATIAKRVKETPNATWPVH AVITNSTYDGLLYNTDFIKKTLDVKSIHFDSAWVPYTNFSPIYEGKCGMS GGRVEGKVIYETQSTHKLLAAFSQASMIHVKGDVNEETFNEAYMMHTTTS PHYGIVASTETAAAMMKGNAGKRLIDGSIERSIKFRKEIKRLKGESDGWF FDVWQPEHIDGPECWPLRSDSAWHGFKNIDNEHMYLDPIKVTLLTPGMKK DGTMDDFGIPASIVAKYLDEHGIVVEKTGPYNLLFLFSIGIDKTKALSLL RALTDFKRAFDLNLRVKNMLPSLYREDPEFYENMRIQDLAQNIHKLIEHH NLPDLMFRAFEVLPSMVMTPYAAFQKELHGQTEEVYLEEMVGRVNANMIL PYPPGVPLVMPGEMITEESRPVLEFLQMLCEIGAHYPGFETDIHGAYRQA DGRYTVKVLKEENNK Polypeptide from Salmonella enterica homologous to E. coli CadA SEQ ID NO: 5 MNVIAIMNHMGVYFKEEPIRELHRALEGLNFRIVYPNDREDLLKLIENNS RLCGVIFDWDKYNLELCEEISKLNEYMPLYAFANSYSTLDVSLNDLRMQV RFFEYALGAATDIAAKIRQNTDEYIDNILPPLTKALFKYVREGKYTFCTP GHMGGTAFQKSPVGSIFYDFFGPNTMKSDISISVSELGSLLDHSGPHKEA EEYIARVFNAERSYMVTNGTSTANKIVGMYSAPAGSTVLIDRNCHKSLTH LMMMSDITPIYFRPTRNAYGILGGIPQSEFQHATIAKRVKETPNATWPVH AVITNSTYDGLLYNTDYIKKTLDVKSIHFDSAWVPYTNFSPIYQGKCGMS GDRVEGKIIYETQSTHKLLAAFSQASMIHVKGDINEETFNEAYMMHTTTS PHYGIVASTETAAAMMKGNAGKRLINGSIERAIKFRKEIKRLKSESDGWF FDVWQPEHIDGAECWPLRSDSAWHGFKNIDNEHMYLDPIKVTILTPGMKK DGTMDEFGIPASLVAKYLDERGIIVEKTGPYNLLFLFSIGIDKTKALSLL RALTEFKRAFDLNLRVKNILPALYREAPEFYENMRIQELAQNIHKLVEHH NLPDLMYRAFEVLPKMVMTPYTAFQKELHGETEEVYLEEMVGRVNANMIL PYPPGVPLVMPGEMITEESRPVLEFLQMLCEIGAHYPGFETDIHGAYRQA DGRYTVKVLKENTK 

What is claimed is:
 1. A product, which is one of the following products I) through VI): I) a CadA variant polypeptide comprising at least one amino acid substitution at a glutamic acid residue at one or more positions selected from the group consisting of positions 291, 344, 355, 463, 482, and 499 as determined with reference to SEQ ID NO:2, wherein the glutamic acid residue occurs at the surface of the protein with the side chain oriented towards the external environment in a segment of the protein that lacks a defined secondary structure; and wherein the CadA variant polypeptide has at least 80% identity to any one of SEQ ID NOS:2 to 5; II) a polynucleotide comprising a nucleic acid sequence encoding a CadA variant polypeptide of I); III) an expression vector comprising a polynucleotide of II); IV) a genetically modified host cell comprising a CadA variant polypeptide of I); V) a genetically modified host cell comprising a polynucleotide of II), wherein the nucleic acid sequence encoding the CadA variant polypeptide is integrated into the host cell chromosome; VI) a genetically modified host cell comprising an expression vector of III).
 2. A product of claim 1, which is I) the CadA variant polypeptide, wherein the substitution is at glutamic acid residue at one or more positions selected from the group consisting of positions 291, 344, 355, 463, 482, and
 499. 3. The product of claim 1, wherein the amino acid substitution is E291A/C/D/H/R/V/G/K/N/S, E355C/F/H/K/L/MN/P/Q/R/S/T/V/Y, or E482C/F/I/L/S/W/Y/A/H/K/M.
 4. The product of claim 3, where the amino acid substitution is E291A/C/D/H/R/V, E355C/F/H/K/L/M/N/P/Q/R/S/T/V/Y, or E482C/F/I/L/S/W/Y.
 5. A product of claim 1, which is I) the CadA variant polypeptide, wherein the CadA variant polypeptide at least 85%, at least 90%, or at least 95% identity to SEQ ID NO:2.
 6. A product of claim 1, which is I) the CadA variant polypeptide, wherein the CadA variant polypeptide has at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, or at least 95% identity to SEQ ID NO:3, SEQ ID NO:4, or SEQ ID NO:5.
 7. A product of claim 1, which is I) the CadA variant polypeptide, wherein the CadA variant polypeptide is a conservatively modified variant polypeptide.
 8. A product of claim 1, which is IV) the genetically modified host cell, wherein the host cell is genetically modified to over express one or more lysine biosynthesis polypeptides.
 9. A product of claim 1, which is IV) the genetically modified host cell, wherein the host cell is a bacterium.
 10. The product of claim 8, wherein the host cell is from the genus Escherichia, Hafnia, or Corynebacteria.
 11. The product of claim 8, wherein the host cell is selected from the group consisting of Escherichia coli, Hafnia alvei and Corynebacterium glutamicum.
 12. A product of claim 1, which is VI) the genetically modified host cell, wherein the host cell is a bacterium.
 13. A product of claim 1, which is VI) the genetically modified host cell, wherein the host cell is form the genus Escherichia, Hafnia, or Corynebacteria.
 14. A product of claim 1, which is VI) the genetically modified host cell, wherein the host cell is selected from the group consisting of Escherichia coli, Hafnia alvei and Corynebacterium glutamicum.
 15. A product of claim 1, which is V) the genetically modified host cell, wherein the host cell is a bacterium.
 16. The product of claim 14, wherein the host cell is form the genus Escherichia, Hafnia, or Corynebacteria.
 17. The product of claim 14, wherein the host cell is selected from the group consisting of Escherichia coli, Hafnia alvei and Corynebacterium glutamicum.
 18. A method, which is one of the following methods I) through III): I) a method of producing cadaverine, the method comprising culturing a genetically modified host cell of claim 1 IV) under conditions in which the CadA variant polypeptide is expressed; II) a method of producing cadaverine, the method comprising culturing a genetically modified host cell of claim 1 V) under conditions in which the CadA variant polypeptide is expressed; III) a method of producing cadaverine, the method comprising culturing a genetically modified host cell of claim 1 VI) under conditions in which the CadA variant polypeptide is expressed. 